Opeartions Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Opeartions Management - Essay Example Part of the design process include the facilities that will include the facilities and equipment that will be used to produce the goods and services, as well as the information system that will be used to control and monitor the performance. The decisions of the manufacturing process are considered to be very integral to the ultimate success or failure of the system. Design is an issue in operations management since; there is a need for facility design which involves determination of capacity, location and the production facility layout. This will enable the company to know and measure its ability to supply the demanded goods and services in their right quantities at the correct time. Design will also enable the organization to determine where to place the facility with respect to its suppliers and customers, in order to be able to control the transportation cost. It is also determined by the long-term commitment of resources which cannot be changes

OSI Model Essay Example for Free

OSI Model Essay This research paper provides information on using ASP for ERP hosting. The paper is divided into four major areas. The first area defines and briefly describes the term of The Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system. The second area defines and briefly describes the term of Application Service Provider (ASP). The third area provides information on how ERP can be used through ASP. This area mentions architecture, implementation, and benefits from using ERP through an ASP. The last area shows an example of an organization that has successfully implemented ERP system through ASP. Introduction Everyone has a door in their house which is usually locked. You cannot open the door without the right key. Have you ever seen a sign in a store that says â€Å"employees only†? In these two cases, the locked door and the sign on the door are like protection for your space, and it also shows who is allowed to go through the door and who is not. That is kind of what a firewall is. This paper will show you what a firewall really is in the computer domain, how it works and the different types of firewalls that exist. Definition As defined on the internet, â€Å"a firewall is an integrated collection of security measures designed to prevent unauthorized electronic access to a networked computer system. It is also a device or set of devices configured to permit, deny, encrypt, decrypt, or proxy all computer traffic between different security domains based upon a set of rules and other criteria†. It is just like a wall which is usually made out of water, cement and other constituents that can stop somebody from going onto the other side or a better analogy would be a net that can let water through as an authorized item and is able to stop everything else such as fish and other sea animals. History of firewalls The term â€Å"firewall† originally meant a wall to confine a fire or potential fire within a building. The firewall technology itself emerged in 1980 while the internet was still a new technology; and as the internet technology internet was growing, the firewall technology started growing along with it. Why a firewall? Think of this. Did your dad ever tell you where he kept all his money? May be he did, and you probably heard him saying or talking about a bank account too. He knows that his money is safe when it is in the bank and he can get to it anytime he wants and money cannot be taken out of his account unless he has authorized the transfers. The same way, a computer system needs protection so that the important data it contains will not be destroyed by an unauthorized person and also ensures that it will work properly. But, to really understand the importance of the firewalls, you should first know the main functions surrounding your computer. In other words, what can you use your computer for? You can use your computer to save important files in its memory(which is a kind of an electronic space where you can store data) or communicate with someone else through the internet or create documents. With all the tools gathered, your computer should be able to function properly and do all those tasks for you. Unfortunately, there are some people out there that for one reason or another, are trying every day to steal the data on your computer or make it work improperly. And, this is the reason you need a firewall; the same reason the security guard stands in from of the bank to protect the bank against robbery. Types of Firewall Firewalls can be categorized into three basic types. Packet filters Application Gateways / Proxy Stateful Inspection Packet filters This type of firewall will perform its action by inspecting everything from the internet before it gets into your computer. Now, in your house, think of packet filter firewall as a security guard. Your dad or your mom have their rules and always tell you what to do; you have to do your home work, you have to go to bed at 9pm, you have to eat vegetables or else, no dessert for you, and so on. However, they love you so much that they hire a security guard to protect you 24/7, and he will never go anywhere. Your parents also ask a security guard not to let anyone get into the house without their permission. To do so, a security guard is given a list of people who can and cannot enter the house, this list called Access Control Lists (ACLs). Application Gateways / Proxy You parents realize that one security guard is not enough, and they want to ensure that the house is a safe place for you. Your parents call the security guard company and hire more security guards. The company suggests your parents choose its best system available called Application Gateways, also called Proxy. Your parent accepted the offer; a big gate with the security room is built in front of your house in no time. Everyone who wants to get into the house will have to go through this security room and has his Identification (ID) checked. This ID can verify who he is, where he comes from, and what business he has at your house. If an ID is valid, a person will be searched to see if he carries weapons. By doing so, you can now be sure that you are safer than ever before. Stateful Inspection There is another type of body guard called Stateful Inspection. Not only will he follow Access Control Lists (ACLs) as mentioned before, but he also takes a picture of visitors to keep on record. The next time this visitor comes, he will be recognized by the picture on his file. . How the Firewall works? The major job of a firewall is to keep anything in your computer secured. It works like a traffic light. If you are driving a car or riding a bike, you start to slow down at traffic lights and come to a complete stop if the light is red. Red lights mean you are not allowed to cross, and if it is green then you are good to go. Firewalls stand in the middle between the system and the internet. It stops or alerts you if you have anyone trying to invade your personal computer space. A firewall is like a security guard standing in front of a bar checking for IDs because you have to be twenty-one years-old in order to get into the bar. A firewall stands between two networks, and the network is just like a bar. Outside a bar is a place where everybody can sit or stand regardless of how old they are. Similarly, outside the network is where all the traffic flows, bad or good. However, inside the bar are the customers who are of legal age. Compare this to your personal computer network that is not for everyone; it is only for the traffic that you want to be in your computer. The traffic has to meet certain criteria so that firewalls can allow them into your computer. Those who meet the criteria are let in by the firewall and those who do not meet the criteria are kept out. If bad traffic is enters your computer illegally, it rings a bell to let you know that something has entered inside without your knowledge. Firewall layers A firewall is working on the third of the seven layers of OSI Model. It is a network layer. This is where the traffic passes into the network. OSI stand for Open System Interconnection and it is defined as a networking structure which is responsible for implementation of the traffic within the seven layers. To clarify the function of the seven layers in the OSI Model, let us replace OSI with a house that has seven rooms: three small bedrooms for kids, a family room, a room for the family library, and two bathrooms, one for a shower and other for a toilet. These rooms each have a different use. For example, someone living in that house cannot use the shower room for a toilet. He/she has to go to the toilet room because the shower room is designed for showers only. Each of these bedrooms has its own duty too. The same thing is true of the seven layers of the OSI model. Each layer has its own duty to perform. The master room is for mom and dad to sleep. Kids are not allowed to sleep in mom and dad`s room because the function of that room is only for dad and mom to sleep. OSI layer seven`s function is to give the last computer’s user a service; an example would be giving an email account to a certain user. Conclusion In conclusion, we will say that the firewall technology is widely used in the world of technology today. Firewalls appear sometimes as one component or as a combination of components that are really sophisticated in order to meet the requirements and to protect the user against the continuing threats from the internet world.

Reflective essay: Stroke patient

Reflective essay: Stroke patient ASSIGNMENT FROM MOTHER NA A Reflective Essay on significant patient care event within a multidisciplinary setting. This will be a reflective analysis on a significant event that I have observed and experienced in clinical placements. A reflective model was not used, as it was too restrictive for the event being analysed, critiqued and discussed. My focus on this assignment is on assessment on a stroke patient and prevention of pressure ulcers. This was my first experience to nurse a stroke patient and therefore was very interested to know about the disease and how to make an assessment on patients in this situation. All details that could identify any person, clinical placement or trust have been changed to protect confidentiality, in line with The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) Code of Professional Conduct, Performance and Ethics (2008). Reflection is an active process of witnessing one’s own experience so that we can make an evaluation in order to make a decision. Reflection has its foundations in the discipline off learning and experience in a student (Jasper 2003).Jasper (2003) believes that we learn by doing, and realising what came of what we did. There are so many models of reflection however, these are not meant to use for an inflexible set of questions to be answered but to give a construction on how to go about a problem. While on placement I worked with one of the qualified staff on the ward and looked after a lady aged 84 years. Doris had suffered a stroke which developed to impaired swallowing and speech. She was admitted to the ward due to having an ischemic stroke. A stroke is a disease that affects the arteries leading to and within the brain and categorised as ischemic or haemorrhagic stroke. This occurs when the blood vessel that carries oxygen and nutrients to the brain is either blocked or burst. This results in the brain not getting the oxygen and nutrients that it needs and eventually starts to die (Feigin et al 2003). Because of this patients have a propensity to develop swallowing impairment or speech impairment. Ischemic stroke take place as a result of an impediment within a blood vessel supplying blood to the brain. The original circumstances for this type of obstruction are the development of fatty deposits lining the vessel walls. This condition is called atherosclerosis (Lopez et a l 2006). These fatty deposits can cause two types of obstruction that is cerebral thrombosis or cerebral embolism. In the case of an embolism, a clot breaks loose and enters the blood stream and eventually fails to pass when it reaches smaller brain capillaries. Irregular heartbeats known as atrial fibrillation is another cause for embolism which is likely to form a clot in the heart and later dislodge and travel to the brain (Feigin et al 2003). The National Audit office (2005) report shows that 130,000 of United Kingdom population suffer a Transient ischemic attack (TIA) every year, of which half of the figure the stroke occurs in the people aged above 75yrs, however stroke do happen in all ages (Kwan 2001). Saka et al (2009) explains that the UK economy has to account for  £9 billion per year to cover the costs of stroke related diseases including its management and therefore causing a burden on the economy. Because of the muscle weakness due to a stroke, there’s loose o f control on the bladder sphincter causing incontinence. In addition statistics show that 63% of the population who are hospitalised develop pressure sores over the last 10 years. The figure includes the elderly and patients who have suffered a stroke. Communication was another issue; Doris could not communicate well due to the dysphasia which developed after the stroke and sadly no one in the family or friend had escorted Doris to hospital for health care staff to obtain her past history on admission. Taking a medical history is good practice as it allows health care staff to apply effective assessment which will meet the patient’s needs. It is through effective communication that effective assessment will be implemented. There are other approaches in communication, for example The â€Å"VERA† framework (validation, Emotion, reassure and activity) suggested in a study that it enabled student nurses to counter to elderly patients whose communication and behaviour proved to be difficult. These frameworks give choices to healthcare staff a set of principles to guide them with communication while providing any medical intervention. Childs, Coles and Marjoram (2009) state that the inability to communicate to others cause anxiety and fear. While Happ (2000 cited in Childs et al 2009) think that people who are unable to talk or communicate are â€Å"voiceless† and therefore it increase powerless and isolation in patients. Buckman (2000) emphasised that ‘ effective symptom management is imporsible without effective communication’. . Assessment is a process that involves collecting and organising information and acknowledged as an on-going process associated with the other nursing stages of the nursing process (Thomson and Mathias 2000). Brooker and Waugh (2007) state that decision making and judgement is usually based on information collected. The data is then used to identify the patients nursing problems on the base of need, which hopefully is brought out or recognised assessment (Thompson and Mathias 2000). Timby (2001) identifies two types of assessment a data base assessment and a focus assessment. The data assessment is the initial information about the patients physical, emotional, social and spiritual health, is lengthily and comprehensive. Database information is obtained during the admission interview and on carrying out physical examination. Field and Smith (2008) demonstrate the importance of person-centred assessment and also the need of multi-agency involvement. An observation was made that all t hese areas were met. Although each discipline had achieved assessment in a different way, they are valued for the assessment they will contribute to patient care. Brooker and Waugh (2007) feel that including integrated care pathways in patients care plan is good. This is a single document of which all the multidisciplinary team are able to record their care. To achieve good patient assessment, there is need to collect information from the past medical history and this will allow care to flow with one another. During the ward round a consultant had suggested that an indwelling catheter was to be inserted for easy flow of urine and to prevent the development of pressure sores. It was when the nurse advised that the catheterisation was to be done after all other works has been done on the ward because she had to carry out an aseptic procedure. Whilst on other placement this observation was not done instead catheterisation was carried out as a clean procedure. This prompted me to question, should all health care settings observe catheterisation as an aseptic technique procedure and when do health care staff identify the need of inserting a catheter. This issue has been brought to light by numerous guidelines and theories that have been published relating to and concerning infection control by the Department of Health. Although it is clear that Doris was vulnerable and likely to develop pressure ulcers, was it really necessary to insert a catheter? All parts of the multidisciplinary team carin g for the patients need to have an understanding of each other’s role, to achieve effective care through collaboration and decision making, but some nurses feel disempowered by more senior staff, for example; doctors; consultants, due to intimidation and hierarchy of roles and so can affect the influence nurses have on the decision making process (Coombs 2003). Nurses may come into conflict when collaboratively making decisions with the multidisciplinary team and patients as their personal and professional values may vary. A study suggests that catheter insertion has a potential off introducing micro-organisms into the bladder (Barford and Coates, 2009). In another study, Pratt et al, (2007) mentions that catheterization should be treated as a skilled aseptic procedure to be carried out by trained and qualified staff in order to reduce infection. Health associated infections are acquired while patients are receiving treatment in a care setting and can prolong hospital stay. These infections include any infection obtained as a result of healthcare whilst in hospital or other healthcare settings and can have an effect on both patients and all aspects of the multidisciplinary team, in addition teamwork means everyone has to be involved in the patient care (Nicholson et al 2010). . The Department of health (2006c) released a broad document which includes the generated acute hospital waste and the community practitioners. What is not known is whether the patient acquired the infection in hospital or not. T he patients’ age matters as infection risk increase in the elderly and young people. Patients whose nutritional status as in the case of Doris affects the ability of the body to fight infection and therefore a broad risk assessment is required (Horton and Parker 2002). Grandies et al., (2003 cited in Field and Smith2008) clarifies that in any assessment, the age, nutrition status, circulatory status, mobility, dependence level and mental awareness are to be taken into account. Patients need to be critically assessed for possibilities of developing pressure sores as the cost is huge to both the organisation looking after the patient and the patient herself. Health care staff needs to identify the existing risk factors already presenting on the patient which may lead to developing pressure sores. Iggulden et al (2009) describes pressure sores as damage to the skin and the underlying tissues caused by shearing, friction and moisture while Bick and Stephen in another study say that physical, and psychological well being including the environment is a factor causing pressure Sores. Mallet and Dougherty (2004) add on to mention that the extent of these ulcers if not properly treated may lead to damage of the involving muscles, tendons and the bone. Skin integrity is important in this situation. Due to illness arterial blood pressure may drop causing obstruction of circulation to the skin and therefore an ulcer will develop. It is clear that Doris was vulnerable and likely to develop pressure ulcers. Pressure ulcers are developed when patients sit or lie in one position for a long time. â€Å"The essence of care toolkit for clinical practice benchmarking has pressure ulcer prevention (department of health 2003). The water low score and Braden (cited in Bergstrom et al 1987) are good toolkits for assessing patients at the risk of pressure sores. However the NICE (2005) guide line instructs nurses not to rely on them alone. Doris’ water low score indicated she was at a risk of developing pressure sores. This was because her mobility and nutrition status were affected after the stroke. There is evidence in study that females are more vulnerable to pressure sores that male. This is because anatomically males are more muscular than females. It is the nurse’s responsibility to ensure patients receive optimal nutrition and good hydration while in hospital. In another study statistics show that 63 % of elderly patients with stroke develop pressure sores due to poor mobility and nutrition in the last 10 years. Doris was at higher risk to develop as she typically lost muscle and subcutaneous tissue due to poor nutrition following her difficulties to swallow, poor nutritional status also makes her more vulnerable. Ongoing assessment at this time is crucial as it will trigger on all the possible barriers of poor nutrition and hydration on patients who require help in feeding and drinking (NHS Choices2010). Nutrition and hydration are important in health but in illness there are certain considerations that have to look into because the body needs nutrients in order to recover mostly in wound healing including preventing infections (Royal collage of Nursing (RCN) 2009). The RCN (2009) clarifies that poor nutrition and hydration is a threat to patients who have suffered stroke as this may cause delayed discharge and other complications like low blood pressure and electrolyte imbalan ce which are likely to cause poor circulation and allow a patient to develop pressure sores. Nutrition and good hydration is fundamental in nursing to promote quick recovery and wound healing. However there are patient’s factor which may affect their nutrition and hydration such as stroke which possibly will reduce their independence to eat freely. According to (Green 2011) by improving patients nutrition and dehydration the patients skin and well being will be promoted and this can be achieved through delegation to healthcare assistants to help with feeding at meal times with nurses ensuring proper meals have been given to patients’ e.g. soft meal, puree, low fat or residue meal which are required for patients with dysphasia or digestive problems in line to prevent pressure sores. All patients are prone to develop pressure sores but the emphasis is on the elderly because basic factors are related to immobility, age and illness .Pressure ulcers are preventable if proper nursing measures are carried out. NICE (2001) guidelines state that all patients likely to develop pressure sores are to be on a pressure relive mattress while in hospital. Therefore a decision was made that Doris needed a pressure relief airflow mattress as her score was high. Evidence based practice is essential in nursing, it has the potential to develop and increase patient care outcomes as it will enable nurses to evaluate and deliver care according to patients needs. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008) advocate that nurses should make care of people their first concern. Therefore a broad medical history taking form the patient becomes essential so that an accurate diagnosis can be made for the patient to receive optimal care and treatment (Kale 2001). Nurses have a propensity of commu nicating with patients during intimate intervention and it’s during this time that individuals are likely to speak freely which is why Doris’s mode of communication has to be identified through the speech and language team in order to support her. The need for nurses to know their patients better and understand their problems and specific needs becomes fundamental. Nurses may come into conflict when collaboratively making decisions with the multidisciplinary team and patients as their personal and professional values may vary if proper history was not taken. Lloyd and Craig (2007) suggest that although history taking is the cornerstone of assessment in patients, nurses are sometimes not at ease with taking patients history. History taking is not focused on identifying patients’ signs and symptoms of the illness but to involve the whole person in a holistic way which will help the health care staff to plan and evaluate patients’ care (Department of Health 2001). There is need for nurses to develop their history taking skills as this will allow them to acknowledge social, medical psychological and biographical domains of the patient. Fischer (1995) feels that doctors â€Å"make a history â€Å"instead of â€Å"take history† this process becomes complete when both patient and doctor are both satisfied on the causative problem. However Gask and Usher wood (2002) in the article emphasises that successful history taking is based on skilled and patient -centred communication that a therapeutic relationship will begin betw een nurse and patient. It is through this therapeutic relationship between the patient and the nurse that they will work together to make a collaborative decision and address the problem. Therefore health care staff must act as a patient advocate to protect and respect their dignity. Palliative care is in any illness which is progressive and incurable, therefore there is need for the multidisciplinary team to work together and provide a high- quality end of life stroke care. Although there is evidence that Doris is likely to develop pressure sores catheterisation could not be a solution at this point. The department of health (2003) aim to reduce the risks of health associated infection and indwelling catheters are among the common cause of invasive medical devices used in health care settings and, consequently, are a frequent cause of Health Care Associated Infections. Other than affecting patients, HCAI is also having negative burden on the National Health Service (NHS). Patients like Doris are more prone to infection due to that the body mechanism to fight infection is already compromised. Catheter acquire infection can be very distressful to patients and prolong hospital stay. The possibility of Doris going into palliative care is obvious and therefore there is need to plan for it in her care plan or discharge plan. In this reflection it is noticed on admission that Doris is alone. Loneliness has an impact on elderly people. In a campaign to end loneliness research shows that many people have no peers or friends. It is through the general practitioners and district nurses that support to these people can be offered, all decisions made in the multidisciplinary context have to involve the patients’ family (NHSQIS and the University of Glasgow 2010). All parts of the multidisciplinary team caring for the patients need to have an understanding of each other’s role, in order to make a collaborative decision. In conclusion, while reflecting and making recommendations for different ways of approach on situation in practice, holistic assessment followed by full history taking to allow care to flow should be a priority followed by improving nutrition and hydration in very ill patients. Cauterisation could be a last option in order to prevent pressure sores as there other options to do this. The risks that patients who are immune compromise may be exposed to other infections and how it can be avoided needs to be addressed and it is a constant effort, but is fundamental by all areas of the multidisciplinary team, organisations to reduce rates of infection more and to continue at a lower rate. To improve patient safety and continuum care it is necessary for health care professionals to reflect on nutrition and hydration status of the patient to promote good skin integrity and prevent pressure sores. For reflection to occur, health care professionals need to be aware of the implications that pre ssure sores can have on patients and the importance of education from policies and to comply with relevant procedures.

Preparing for and Having a Baby :: Pregnancy Childbearing Essays

Preparing for and Having a Baby There are many different areas to consider when preparing for and having a newborn. Whether the pregnancy was planned or unplanned or the couple is married or not, a newborn baby brings new responsibilities. Having a baby also forces people to make adjustments both financially and within the family. Parents also express concerns and expectations when having a newborn comma especially when it is their first; including what roles each parent and family member should play, how much confidence they have in their parenting skills, and how much financial strain would be placed on the family once the newborn has arrived. The newest issue in today’s society is the fact that many women are delaying childbirth and having more children in their later years of life. This paper will examine three of the areas associated with planning a newborn child, including single parenting, concerns and expectations parents have when planning for and having a child, and financial issues that mothers face when planning a pregnancy. (Specify if you are talking about single moms or parents/couples, if talking about all of them you might want to consider narrowing your research.) (Introduce this quote, where did you find it, how did you find the site, remember that this is a narrative, you are walking me through the steps of your research. ) â€Å"Today, about one in every three U.S. births occurs outside of marriage. The proportion of births to unmarried women has risen monotonically over time, and attitudes toward non - marital fertility have become progressively more tolerant† (Musick, 2002, p. 915). Sometimes these births are planned and at other times they are not. â€Å"Dramatic increases in cohabitation and associated delays in marriage have changed the composition and character of non-marital births. Unmarried mothers now tend to be older, to have other children, and to be living with a partner at the time of their child’s birth† (Musick, 2002, p. 915). What significance does this have to your research? What does it prove? Why did you include it? The article that I researched regarding this area explores the reasons why women may be taking the steps to start a family without marriage, whether these pregnancies are planned or unplanned. The study was conducted using a couple of different methods including the National Survey of Family Growth and a Discrete-Time Hazard Model. â€Å"The National Survey of Family Growth is a periodic, nationally representative fertility survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics.

Doing Business with Multinational Organizations

INTRODUCTION Owing to the fast evolution of information and technology organization are operating in an environment where the geographical boundaries are none existent and a company with a subsidiary in another continent operates as if they are in the same city. This paper seeks to identify how this has affected way of doing business by multinational organization by looking and four aspects, which are cultural differences, ethical issues, strategy and industrial or business. 1. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Culture plays a very important aspect in various aspects of business especially for multinational corporations (MNC) operation on a global level. Cultural variations affect the way a firm conducts its business in different geographical regions and around different cultural settings so that they widen their market base, increase revenue and reduce conflicts resulting from cultural differences(Deresky,2008).Managers of MNCs have to understand what implications cultures have on various busine ss transactions. The main areas where cultural factors affect multinational corporations are: 1. 1. Influence on Strategy that will be used A multinational company must research on the cultural aspects of a new market they would like to venture in. They have to understand the likes and dislikes, preferences, what is considered right or wrong, what is valued, what is the common belief in the area they are going to operate in.An example is in Saudi Arabia where religion dictates what happens in normal business transactions and daily activities for instance for Muslims who pray five times a day, departmental stores and other businesses created room to allow the Muslim customers and employees to pray moreover during the month of Ramadan, most businesses are closed during the day as the Muslims are fasting and are less active during the day and opt to open in the evenings when people are more active. 1. 2. Communication Language and non-verbal communication are cultural cues that affect passing of messages from one party to another.Communication between parties that come 2 from different cultures becomes more challenging because of the differences elements of culture and what they value in communication. Different cultures have different communication styles (Gallois and Callan ,1997). These communications styles are: 1. 2. 1. Explicit Vs Implicit Communication Explicit communications is where someone when someone talks it is straight to the point and unambiguous for example Americans. Implicit communication is usually indirect and inexact for example Indonesian communication.For instance a mother telling a man that he is not compatible with her daughter serves him with tea and bananas instead of telling him directly (Gallois and Callan ,1997). 1. 2. 2. Direct Vs Indirect Communication Direct communication states direct action for example ‘has this report done before you go home’. When someone hears direct speech they know what is to be done. Greek emp loyees prefer this kind of communication as they prefer orders as compared to their contribution in management decisions. Indirect communication is not authoritative and encourages input from the listener.American managers prefer this kind of communication as it goes with their managerial style of participatory management. 1. 2. 3. Silence Vs Verbal exaggeration Silence is also seen as a way of communication but different cultures perceive silence in different contexts. The Japanese use silence during negotiations as a strategy to control the negotiation process however if their counterparts are 3 Americans, they would see this silence as lack of knowledge or an indication to move to the next point. On the other hand some cultures dramatization and over emphasize to express the gravity of the matter.This has been observed in the Arab states where common words are used at the end of sentences and pronouns will be repeated for emphasis also used are graphical similes and metaphors. Ma nagers in multinational corporations should therefore study very carefully which communication style takes prevalence in what area and use what is preferred (Gallois and Callan ,1997). 1. 3. Non-verbal communication Non-verbal is another way of communicating messages and portrays messages with more emphasis than words as they say actions speak louder than words. Non-verbal communication includes body movements, posture and gestures, facial expressions.In intercultural communication, it is possible that people rely on non-verbal communication especially when verbal messages are unclear or ambiguous. This is because non-verbal communication is used to add meaning to our verbal communication. How non-verbal communication is used also varies for example low context cultures like the Americans tend to concentrate less with non-verbal communication. This means that it is not there but it is given little importance compared to the words. Examples of non-verbal communication cues are proxem ics (space), tone of voice, body gestures, facial expressions and eye contact (Gallois and Callan ,1997). . 4. Negotiations This is a process where business people engage in discussions with the objective of 4 reaching an agreement that will result in the parties involved benefiting. Negotiations for multinational corporations are usually with the suppliers of capital (investors), suppliers, service providers, the Governments involved (either domestic or foreign), customers and the society. Managers should be aware of the sensitivity and complexities of negotiations especially that are caused by cultural differences as these are usually the key to success (Horst,1972).The multicultural negotiation process is as outlined below 1. 4. 1. Preparation: Understand the counterpart’s culture as compared to ours and identifying the differences. Meant to make us understand the counterparts culture 1. 4. 2. Relationship building: This stage is used to build trust, some cultures find thi s step irrelevant while others emphasize on relationship building and spend more time here. 1. 4. 3. Exchange task related information: Presentation of details by each the parties and they state their stands. Culture dictates how much information is revealed. . 4. 4. Persuasion: Each party tries to convince the counterparts to take their option by explaining the benefits each would get from their stand. 1. 4. 5. Concession and agreements: This is where agreements are reached and using culture, negotiators know how they will get to this point. 1. 5 Motivation This is what gives human beings or groups the desire or willingness to do something 5 in terms of work and personal life and such a context is greatly influenced by cultural variables that affect attitudes and behavior. Using Hofstede’s ultural dimensions we can evaluate how different motivation methods by multinational corporations would affect employees from different cultures especially if they use the same methods acr oss several countries. 1. 4. 6. Individualism/Collectiveness People who are members to a culture that promote individualism such as the American culture would be motivated by opportunities for individual advancement and autonomy plus they would prefer individual rewarding systems than people of a collectivist nature who would prefer rewards of the entire group and would be motivated with what will advance the entire group. . 4. 7. Uncertainty/Avoidance People who are members of cultures who prefer to avoid opportunity would prefer job security while the opposite would be motivated with risky opportunities for variety and fast track development. 1. 4. 8. Power distance A low power distance culture will be motivated by team work, contribution coming from all members while in a high power distance, motivations comes from the relation ship of the managers and the subordinates. 1. 4. 9.Masculinity/Femininity A masculine culture would prefer the traditional division of work and roles by g ender and each gender to stay in their positions for example the traditional African culture 6 while in a feminine culture is open and will motivate people through flexible roles and equal opportunity . (Harris and Moran ,2000) 2. ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES Globalization has led to the development of worldwide and regional governing bodies such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), European Union (EU) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA).They are tasked with regulating interactions between economies and preventing conflicts as well as ensuring business ethics and legal measures are taken care of (Farrell et al, 2008) 2. 1Examples of Regional and world governing bodies 2. 1. 1. World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments.The goals of the WTO include among others the administration of trade agreements, facilitation of trade negotiations, settlement of trade disputes, provision of legally binding ground rules for international commerce and trade policy. Basically WTO attempts to reduce barriers to trade between and within nations and settle trade disputes ( Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2008). The WTO can be said to favour the powerful multi-national corporations, which daily strengthen their grip on the world economy. This has led to smaller nations being forced to open up their trade areas e. China being forced by US to open up its trade 7 to allow U. S imports. Globalization of multinationals has many adverse effects on millions of people throughout the world. The overriding aim of the WTO, in short, is to create a world eminently fit for the multi-national corporations to live in. 2. 1. 2. European Union The European Union is the economic association of over two dozen European countrie s, which seek to create a unified, barrier-free market for products and services throughout the continent, as well as a common currency with a unified authority over that currency.The EU relies on member states to protect collective labor rights. The EU expects member states to have thriving trade unions and employees associations to participate in the legislative process at EU level that can help to implement directives at the national level. The EU also places considerable importance on upholding human rights standards in its dealings with 3rd world countries (Alston, 2005). 2. 1. 3. COMESA The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, is a preferential trading area with nineteen member states stretching from Libya to Zimbabwe.COMESA formed in December 1994, replacing a Preferential Trade Area which had existed since 1981. The main objective of COMESA is to facilitate the removal of all structural and institutional weaknesses of member States, and the promotion of peace; secu rity and stability so as to enable them attain sustained development individually and collectively as a regional bloc. Among other things, COMESA member States have agreed on the need to create and maintain: 8 ? a full free trade area guaranteeing the free movement of goods and services produced within COMESA and the removal of all tariffs and non-tariff barriers; a Customs Union under which goods and services imported from nonCOMESA countries will attract an agreed single tariff in all COMESA states; ? free movement of capita and investment supported by the adoption of common investment practices and policies so as to create a more favorable investment climate for the COMESA region; ? a gradual establishment of a payments union based on the COMESA Clearing House and the eventual establishment of a common monetary union with a common currency; and ?The adoption of common visa arrangements, including the right of establishment leading eventually to the free movement of bona fide pers ons. 2. 2. Effects of World Governing Bodies on globalization and business World governing bodies have opened up trade between member countries and as a result increased globalization namely through: 1. Reducing barriers to international trade through international agreements such as WTO agreements 2. Elimination of tariffs; creation of free trade zones with small or no tariffs 3.Reduced transportation costs, especially resulting from development of containerization for ocean shipping. 4. Reduction or elimination of capital controls 5. Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses 9 6. Creation of subsidies for global corporations 7. Harmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with more restrictions 8. Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e. g. patents granted by China would be recognized in the United States) 9.Globalization has brought about the formation of alliances between countries such as the G8, NAFTA, EU, such alliances want to improve trade and business amongst themselves and companies operating outside these alliances have quite some disadvantage e. g. flower companies in Kenya selling flowers to the EU 10. World governing bodies and trade alliances such as EU, WTO stipulates the basic ethical rules that should be used in their member states. If companies do not comply they would have campaigns against them creating boycotts for their products. 10 3. STRATEGIES During the last half of the twentieth century, many barriers to international trade fell and a wave of firms began pursuing international strategies to gain a competitive advantage. Business strategies may include geographic expansion, diversification, acquisition, product development, market penetration, retrenchment, divestiture, liquidation, and joint venture. Strategic management enables organizations to recognize and adopt to change more readily; successfully adapting to change is the key to survival and prosperity. 2. 3. Two types of international strategy 2. 3. 1.Global strategy Treat the world as a single market. It is applied where forces for global integration are strong and force for national responsiveness is weak. For example this is true of consumer electronics market. Global Strategy is suitable for: ? ? ? Product is the same in all countries. Centralized control – little decision-making authority on the local level Effective when differences between countries are small 2. 3. 2. Multinational Strategy It treats the world as a portfolio of national opportunities. It is applied where forces for global integration are weak and force for national responsiveness is strong.For example this is true of branded packaged goods business for 11 example strategy pursued by Unilever. Multi domestic strategy is suitable for ? ? ? Products customized for each market Decentralized control – local decision making Effective when there are wide differences between the countr ies 2. 4. Strategies of investing abroad 2. 4. 1. Joint venture Marula (2006) defines joint venture as a venture that is jointly owned and operated by two or more firms. He further explains that many firms penetrate foreign market by engaging in a joint venture with firms that reside in those markets.Advantages of a Joint venture First these organizations are able to apply their respective comparative advantages in a given project and Marula (2006) gives an example of General Mills Inc which joined in a venture with Nestle SA so as that cereals produced by General Mill could be sold through the overseas sales distribution network by Nestle also Xerox Corp and Fuji Co. of Japan engaged in a joint venture that allowed Xerox Corp to penetrate the Japanese market and allowed Fuji to enter the photocopying business.Secondly a joint ventures enables organization especially in the automobile to offer its technological advantages for example General Motors has ongoing joint ventures with au tomobile manufactures in several different countries. 12 Disadvantages of Joint Ventures Association of Certified Charted Accountants (2004) asserts that disagreements may arise over profit shares, amount invested, the management of the joint venture , making the strategy and finally one partner may wish to withdraw from the arrangement. 2. 4. 2.Contract Manufacturing or Licensing Pearce and Robison (2004) define licensing as the transfer of some industrial property right from the licensor to a motivated licensee. They further explain that most tend to be patterns, trademarks, or technical know how that are granted to the licensee for a specified time in return for a royalty and for avoiding tariffs or import quotas. Advantages of Licensing Pearce and Robison (2003) argue that firms that use licensing will benefit from lowering the risk of entry into the foreign markets and used best in companies large enough to have a ombination of international strategic activities and for firms w ith standardized products in narrow margin industries. Disadvantages of Licensing According to Pearce and Robison (2004) is the possibility that the foreign partner will gain the experience and evolve into a major competitor after the contract expires as this was a case between U. S electronics firms with Japanese companies. Secondly they argue that another potential problem stems from the control that the licensor forfeits on production, marketing and 13 general distribution of its products.And this loss of control minimizes a company’s degrees of freedom as it reevaluates its future options. 2. 4. 3. Franchising Pearce and Robison (2004) define Franchising as form of licensing which allows the franchise to sell a highly publicized product or service, using the parent’s brand name or trademark, carefully developed procedures, and marketing strategies. In exchange the franchisee pays a fee to the parent company, typically based on the volume of sales of the franchisor in its defined market area. The local investor who must adhere to the strict policies of the parent operates the franchise.Examples are Avis, Burger King, CocaCola, Hilton, Kentucky fried chicken, Manpower and Pepsi. ACCA (2004) asserts that the franchiser provides the name, any good will associated with it, systems, business methods, support services such as advertising, training and site decoration while the franchisee provides the capital, personal involvement, local market knowledge, payment to the franchiser for the rights, support services and responsibility for day to day running and the ultimate profitability of the franchise.Disadvantages of franchising According to ACCA (2004) search for competent candidates is both costly and time consuming where the franchiser requires many outlets for example McDonalds in UK. Also the control over franchisees is demanding as they are spread over many locations. 14 2. 4. 4. Transnational Alliances Levi (1996) defines transnational allian ces as associations of firms in different countries working together to overcome the limitation of working alone. One of the motivations to form a ransnational alliance is cooperation over research where cost and risks may be too high for any one firm or where different firms may possess different abilities. He gives an example IBM and Siemens of Germany in Memory chip development or marketing of Geo produced in Korea by GM. He further asserts that transnational alliances are compromise between a firm doing everything itself and dealing with a stranger. Advantages Of transnational alliances As Levi (1996) argues organizations form transnational alliances to gain access to foreign markets, to exploit complementary technologies and to reduce time taken for innovation. . 4. 5. Wholly owned foreign subsidiaries Based on a study done by Richard Vernon of Harvard Business School where 187 United States manufacturing with six or more foreign subsidiaries outside of Canada the researcher co ncluded that these multinational corporations tend to be larger, more profitable more advertising and research oriented and more diversified than firms which have not invested abroad. (Horst, 1972) 4. 0 INDUSTRIAL AND BUSINESS Economic reforms/environment affects the business and industry directly.Business plans and programmers are directly influenced by economic factors, 15 such as, interest rates, money supply, price level, consumers’ credit etc. Economic conditions leading to inflation or deflation affect the business activities. Inflation leads to rise in general price-level, whereas deflation leads to fall in price level. Higher petrol prices in the country resulted to a trend in favor of small like Maruti and starlet cars. State of industrial trade and business booms and slumps constitute the economics of market environment, (Lewis, 2006).Recently government initiated various economic policies. As such the impact of these reforms changes on business and industry in the following manner: 2. 5. Buyers’ market In the liberalized policy regime shortages of goods are no more, but there are surplus of goods. These arise due to competition, reduction in cost, up-gradation of technology, improvement in quality and customer convenience. Removal of government restrictions on capacity creation and capacity utilization has also helped increase in the supply of goods.Industry has been given total freedom to expand and diversify. Price control has been removed. Investment now takes place in the areas of demand. All these changes have made the buyer, the sovereign of the market. 2. 6. Export is required for survival Implementation of new trade policy has linked imports to exports. The enterprises should earn foreign exchange by exports and use the same foreign exchange for importing raw material spares and equipments. For example: Reliance Group, Essar World Trade, Ceat, Videocon, Eicher, MRF etc, are being benefited by the 16 new policy. 2. 7.Threat from multinational companies Due to the present policy of liberalization of our government, massive entry of multinationals in the country has started. The vast resources and the modern technology of the present multi-national companies have enabled their subsidiary companies to boost sales and enjoy strategic advantage over their competitors. The presence of multinational companies has been rendering valuable services to our economy. It is supplying superior quality of goods, generating more employment opportunities, promoting modern technology and awakening our business community.Presence of multinational companies has also boosted growth of small industries in the country. 2. 8. Overall competition The new competitive environment has thrown the economy open. There is tough competition between multinationals and there is also competition between local enterprises and foreign enterprises. Competition has now become global. It is not confined to national boundaries. For instance, Weston Electronics Company, which held about 18% of the television market, has been virtually thrown out of the market due to cutthroat competition and technological backwardness. . 9. World class technology Changes in government policy regarding business and industry have provided us with world-class technology. Most companies have also started making investment in research and development. Pharmaceutical industries in countries such as India made 2% investment in R & D. In developed countries investment in 17 research and development is approximately 12%. Multinationals are also bringing world-class technology in the country. This has enabled faster growth of industries. 2. 10. Future not guided by past failuresIt is rightly said that future starts afresh for companies. Future now needs new strategies, high technologies, determined efforts, enthusiasm, organization and leadership. New approaches, systems structures and new leadership must emerge to compete with the multinationals. We mu st forget the past, bury its failures and start working with new endeavor, approaches and leadership. 2. 11. Wider and diverse markets Due to globalization markets have been opened up and can now be widely accessed by companies from various countries.Countries have lift barriers improving flow of goods between them. This has boosted import and export trade among various countries. Regional trading blocks have been formed to improve trade and allow free flow of goods and services among member countries. In the agricultural sector, crop imports are traded at cheaper prices and exchanged for another commodity because of the free trade as entailed among the provisions of bodies such as COMESA or WTO. A country such as Philippines could purchase or import crops from another country at cheaper tariff rates, in case of a shortage.However, on the downside, countries that are more progressive agriculturally could just dump their third-rate or low-class products to their third-world trading c ounterparts. 18 2. 12. Foreign direct investment inflows Local industries which have invested abroad such as Bidco oil refinery is reaping huge profits from its foreign direct investments such as from its investment in Uganda palm plantation. Creation of common markets has given countries incentives to invest in those countries thus leading to investment inflows.Lowering of tariffs: countries such as India have been reaping from enormous opportunities emerging from globalization such as consequent lowering of tariff barriers. Information Technology has given Indian industries formidable brand equity in the global markets. Indian companies have a unique distinction of providing efficient business solutions with cost and quality as an advantage by using state of art technology. Outsourcing is the act of giving a third-party the responsibility of running hat would otherwise be an internal system or service. Due to globalization, most companies and businesses have sought to contract mos t of its services or processes to outsiders. Most industries now use outsourcing such as call centers and can outsource its functions such as marketing, financial, training, transport and distribution and so forth. Capitalize on global trade: most domestic industries now capitalize on global trade by concentrating on the domestic market and then leverage their economies of scale overseas. 2. 13.Devaluation Some countries have had to cope up with the trend of globalization by devaluing their currency such as India. The first step towards globalization was taken with the announcement of the devaluation of Indian currency by 18-19 percent against 19 major currencies in the international foreign exchange market. This was a measure taken in order to resolve the balance of payment crisis. 5. 0 ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION In conclusion my own critique on globalization is that the whole process has increased power that multinational corporations seems to enjoy .This is seen as a particularly wo rrying phenomenon because it affects the issues that are raised and witnessed everywhere we have a multinational company. An overriding concern is that globalization increases the gap between the haves and the have-not of the world. Unfair labor practices such as child labour, poor working conditions and low remuneration packages are some of issues that have been witnessed in the recent past. Although it’s not clear whether the forces of globalization may produce a general deterioration of working conditions around the world or increase the inequality of working conditions among countries . espite the above ,in rich countries the picture is totally different thus self-interested opposition to globalization with fears that cheap imports or immigrants from other countries will lower the relative wages of low-skilled workers, more rapid economic change and shifting patterns of comparative advantage will increase economic insecurity and international competition. Despite all this countering the claims of globalization skeptics is a century-old economy theory that predicts free trade will reduce a convergence of labour conditions around the world. 20 6. References: ACCA (2004) Strategic business planning and development (paper 3. 5). London: BPP Professional Education Alston, P. (2005). Labour rights as human rights. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Deresky, H. (2008). International Management : Managing Across Borders and Culture (6th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education. Gallois, C. , & Callan, V. (1997). Communication and culture: A guide for practice. Chichester, UK, Wiley. Ferrell, O. , Fraedrich, J. , & Ferrell, L. (2008). Business Ethics: Ethical decision making and cases. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Horst T. 1972) Firm and Industry Determinants of the Decision to Invest Abroad: An Empirical Study The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Aug. , 1972), pp. 258-266 Kotler, Philip: Marketing Management: nineth edition , Prentice Hall India Lewis D. 3rd ed. (2006): When cultures collide. Leading across cultures. London. Nicholas Brealey International. Levi, Maurice D (1996) International Finance; The markets and financial management multinational business (3rd ed) Singapore: McGraw- 21 McFarlin, D. B. , & Sweeney, P. D. (2006). International Management: Strategic Opportunities and Cultural Challenges (3rd ed. . Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. O’Carroll, G. (n. d. ). Intercultural Communication – Module: [Intercultural communication]. Retrieved from ECO – European Career Orientation website: http://eco. ittralee. ie// Pearce, J. and Robinson, R. (2004). Strategic Management: Formulation, Implementation and Control. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies Schermehorn, J. R. (2005). Organizational Behavior (9th ed. ). Hoboken, NJ Thomas, D. C. (2002). Essentials of International Management: A cross culture Perspective. 2455 Teller Road, Sage Publications Inc. 22

Consequences of Transfer essays

Consequences of Transfer essays For some time now society along with politicians have found it to be beneficial for juveniles to be transferred to adult criminal court. In the past, two types of cases were transferred: seriously violent offenders and chronic offenders. The reasoning behind this was because for serious violent offenses the public demands harsh punishment or penalties. As far as chronic offenders it was thought or perceived that the juvenile justice system was not working for, or equipped for these types of offenders (Bishop and Frazier, 2000). Some justice officials and legislators see juvenile transfers as a deterrent. If young offenders realize that they have a chance of being transferred to adult criminal court they then will think more about their actions and not commit the offense. This view is different from Moffit, who believes that juveniles dont think about their actions because they have short term perspectives. According to Donna Bishop scared straight approach of transferring juveniles has had little research or studies done on it. The research that has been conducted did not support the ideas of legislators or juvenile justice officials. In fact the results seem to be the exact opposite. More of the offenders in the juvenile justice system reform, than that of the juveniles in the adult system. Research by (Fagan, 1991, 1995, 1996) indicated that transfer was associated with re-arrest: the percent of juveniles processed in criminal court were 76% re- arrested, compared to only 67 percent of those juveniles processed in juvenile court. The outcome was similar when the incarcerated rate was looked at, 56% of the juveniles in the adult court system were incarcerated while only 41% of the juveniles in juvenile court system were incarcerated. Five other studies similar to the Fagan study return the same summarizing results. Making transfer more detrimental to a juvenile, because the criminal c...

George and Lennie in the novella Of Mice and Men Research Paper Example

George and Lennie in the novella Of Mice and Men Research Paper Example George and Lennie in the novella Of Mice and Men Paper George and Lennie in the novella Of Mice and Men Paper The novella, Of Mice and Men, written by John Steinbeck, is set in Californias Salinas Valley, Soledad during the Great Depression. Steinbeck illustrates the loneliness of ranch life in the early 1930s and highlights how people are driven to try and find friendship in order to escape from loneliness. Steinbeck deliberately uses the town Soledad, meaning loneliness to connect with the main theme of the novella; furthermore, George Milton is depicted many times playing the game of Solitaire, meaning alone. Of Mice and Men is filled with characters who are unable to escape from their lonely lives. In 1930s America, the itinerant farm workers of the Great Depression found it impossible to establish fixed homes, forcing them to wander from ranch to ranch seeking temporary employment and to live in bunk houses with strangers. Their nomadic lifestyle made it difficult to establish a friendship and this was the cause of their loneliness. George explains the misery of this situation at several points during his dialogues with Lennie Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. : They got no family. They dont belong no place The opening scene of the novella appears to be an extremely peaceful and idyllic place as the Salinas river winds through an idyllic scene of yellow sands, golden foothills, and deer that come to the shore to drink at night, which immediately builds an image of a heavenly place, filled with beauty. The use of colour contributes to the beauty and Eden-like idyllic clearing and contributes to overall sense of perfection. The rich tone of the golden foothill slopes conveys an image of the setting as luxurious and mystical. Steinbeck portrays the river as green and deep which creates an immutable and idyllic serene; yet however, the repetition of the adjective deep implies that water is polluted or dirty, building an image of impending doom or danger. The permanent nature is threatened as the limbs of the sycamore are revealed to be in such a weak state, Steinbeck portraying not how strong nature is but how strong it used to be. The damp flat covered with night tracks of coons also reveals the imperfection of an immutable nature; furthermore, Steinbeck highlights a path beaten hard by boys coming down from the ranches to swim in the deep pool, and beaten hard by tramps who come wearily down from the highway; this metaphor evokes a sense of the harmony of nature spoilt by human interference. This also creates a setting and indicates how men who work on the ranch have had temporary, isolated and lonely lives. The details of the ashes left over from many camp fires and the tree bough worn smooth by so many people sitting on it over the years emphasize the number of people who come over to this spot. Steinbeck gradually introduces that nature is not all idyllic and perfect and this environment is portentous and ominous; he evokes a sense of nostalgia and sentimentality into the landscape. The idyllic peace of the initial scene is disrupted as the two main characters of the novel emerge from the woods. Steinbeck reveals that for a moment the place was lifeless before two men emerged from the path and came into the opening by the green pool. This is evocative because lifeless creates an ominous atmosphere. The rabbits scurry into the shrubs and a heron flies from the edge of the still pool before George and Lennie enter the clearing; this illuminates mans triumph over nature and man disturbing nature. The rabbits senses the presence of danger and hurries away, it is a movement from harmony to discord. There is a contrast between man and nature. Steinbeck also forebodes the death of Lennie by the simple act of predator eating prey. A water snake was at the pond in the beginning, but this time it is eaten. Moreover, a heron was flying away from the pond but now it stays to eat the first snake. It is a method used Steinbeck to foreshadow and illustrate the plot. The snake is predominantly regarded as malevolent and the heron as good which makes the event ironic. One could argue that the heron and water snake are used as metaphors and foreshadowing devices in the novella; Lennie is represented by the water snake and when Lennie scares away the second snake, perhaps he is replacing it. However, the killer will not be a heron, it will be another human George. In the opening section of the novella, Steinbeck wishes to portray the relationship between George and Lennie as leader and follower. Steinbeck highlights that they walked in single file down the narrow path and when they came into the open, one stayed behind the other; which immediately indicates that George is dominant in this comradeship, therefore Lennie is somewhat subordinate, dependent and incapable of looking after himself. This image illustrates that George acts as a parental figure and Lennie is similar to a shy child hiding behind a father. On entry, Steinbeck describes the two dichotomous characters. Instantaneously, George is identified as an itinerant migrant worker, because of the clothes he wears and possession he carries, for example: his hard wearing denim clothes; denim clothing was preferred clothing for farm labourers in America in the 1930s because it was resilient, robust and though suited for working. This is further emphasized by the fact that they are carrying tight blanket rolls which conveys the precarious lives of migrant workers. Steinbeck conveys to the reader that he is nomadic farm labourer seeking work as he is beating the hard-worn path taken by countless other migrant workers; Steinbeck portrays George as being observant and apprehensive due to his restless eyes and sharp strong features; which indicates that he is unable to relax because of the burden of his responsibilities. George has to look after the mentally retarded Lennie in order to keep him out of trouble and woe. George is symbolic of the everyman, a typical farm labourer and ordinary individual in 1930s America. On the other hand, Lennie is the complete opposite of George, a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, pale eyes with sloping shoulders; which indicates that he has the mental capacity of a child and the strength of a bulll and he is unable to control or even judge his own physical power. Steinbeck uses animal imagery as he predominantly compares Lennie with animals, dragging his feet a little the way a bear drags his paws emphasizes that he is a ponderous, powerful, imbecilic bear. Furthermore, dragging his paws like a bear depicts an image of a slow and overly large or obese man. Steinbeck also portrays Lennie snorting into water like a horse; Lennies actions are synonymous with an animal, unlike humans who cup their hands to drink water. This emphasizes that he will act upon an animal instinct nd his animal characteristics convey Lennies great strength that he is unaware of; this holds immense importance in the novel as it foreshadows the downfall of Lennie due to his powerful strength and animal instincts. George and Lennies dream plays an important role in the novella; their dream is to own a farm with lots of coloured rabbits and live off the fatta the lan. In this novella, dreams are one of the ways in which the characters combat the loneliness of their existence. For example: Curleys wifes dream is to become an actress in Hollywood. , Candy and Crookss dream is to join George and Lennies farm; none of the characters ever achieve their dreams. George and Lennies friendship keeps the dream alive, and Steinbeck uses other characters, such as Candy to cause the reader to believe that they might actually succeed in their goals; however, the dream is never fulfilled, as Lennies accident with Curleys wife destroys their unrealistic dream. By writing this, Steinbeck reinforces the significance and importance of the dream and Lennie to George. A method Steinbeck uses to present and develop the characters of George and Lennie is by the use of colloquial American dialect of the working man. George and Lennies colloquial dialect reveals to the reader that George and Lennie are poor and has a low hierarchy. The use of colloquial language helps the reader to engage with the characters and to have a better understanding of their feelings and ideas. Moreover, it reveals Lennies childish mentality to the reader as his language mimics that of a young child Another method Steinbeck uses to develop the characters is the cyclical structure. The novel opens with the description of a riverbed in rural California, a beautiful, wooded area at the base of golden foothill slopes. Steinbeck, then, introduces the two main characters, George and Lennie. At the end of the story, it ends with George and Lennie back where they started, by the river. The structure of this is a cycle; it goes back to the beginning. Steinbeck may have chosen to have a circular plot to show that no circle has an ending, in a way the plot is like a representation to show the dead end existence of the Great Depression. To A Mouse ,a poem written by Robert Burns in 1785, about a man who overturns the soil of a mouses nest in late autumn. In 1937, John Steinbecks novella Of Mice and Men was derived from Burns poem the best laid schemes omice an men/ Gang aft agley an lea e us nought but grief an pain for promisd joy. This line demonstrates us that instead of promised joy, people get shattered dreams, grief and pain; Robert Burns explains that no matter how best laid plans are, even the best of them can be ruined by a simple thing, for example; the mouses nest is easily destroyed and ruined by man. In the novella, George and Lennies American Dream is also easily shattered as everything goes wrong when Lennie accidentally kills Curleys wife. There are abundant similarities between the Burns poem and the novella, for example: mans dominion is the theme of both poem and novella. The line Im truly sorry mans dominion, has broken natures social union emphasizes that Robert Burns felt a great reverence towards animals, who do not have free will like humans do. He tries to explain that he could not help but having dominance over the mouse. In Steinbecks novella, Lennie also has dominance over animals, when he accidentally kills the mouse, the dog and Curleys wife because he has no control over his powerful physical strength. The message that Steinbeck wishes to convey to the reader about George and Lennie is a socialist theory and that everyone should have a role in society. In the novella, each different character represents a different group of people. George represents the everyman, as his lifestyle is simple and similar to other people in 1930s America. Lennie obviously represents the mentally handicapped who is not accepted in 1930s America. Moreover, Crooks is subject to discrimination; for instance, when he is forced to sleep in a separate room from the other labourers, his marginalized status becomes obvious. His plight epitomizes the ubiquitous segregation of color in 1930s America. While Candy represents what happens to everyone who gets old in 1930s American society. Steinbeck wishes to emphasize that everyone should have a role in society to prove the point to the reader that everyone is equal through unclouded eyes untampered by society.

Free Essays on Analyzing John Kerrys Speech

of â€Å"...What George Bush and his armchair hawks have never understood is that our military is about more than moving pins on a map or buying expensive new weapons systems.† Kerry’s â€Å"name calling† of Bush and his associates right away makes us look at them in a different way. Since â€Å"war† is associated with something scary and horrible, giving Bush a name of a â€Å"war President† is the same thing as saying that Bush is a scary and a horrible person. It’s almost making us think that Bush caused the war in the first place. Kerry calls Bush’s associated â€Å"hawks†, which are looked upon as dark cruel animals that don’t care about anything but their own well being. That connection makes Bush’s associates seem to be cruel and heartless people with no good cause. Throughout the speech ... Free Essays on Analyzing John Kerry's Speech Free Essays on Analyzing John Kerry's Speech Analyzing John Kerry's speech "Fighting a Comprehensive War on Terrorism" John Kerry speech, â€Å"Fighting a Comprehensive War on Terrorism†, may be seen as an art of his campaign for the forthcoming elections in the country. Apart from arguing on his point of view regarding war on terrorism by Bush Administration, one can see good use of speech techniques displayed throughout the text to convey his message to the audience. Kerry uses all sorts of speech techniques like â€Å"name calling†, â€Å"appeal to fear†, â€Å"faulty cause and effect†, and â€Å"glory by association†, to portray his own version of President Bush’s image in front of audience and supported his ideas with persuasiveness. While analyzing his speech from the point of view of many language techniques, we can see that he could not refrain himself from using â€Å"name calling†, a device consisting of labeling people or ideas with bad names. For instance, he calls President Bush a â€Å"War President† by saying: â€Å"Day in and day out, George W. Bush reminds us that he is a war President†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Onward, he calls Bush and his close associates â€Å"hawks†, in the words of â€Å"...What George Bush and his armchair hawks have never understood is that our military is about more than moving pins on a map or buying expensive new weapons systems.† Kerry’s â€Å"name calling† of Bush and his associates right away makes us look at them in a different way. Since â€Å"war† is associated with something scary and horrible, giving Bush a name of a â€Å"war President† is the same thing as saying that Bush is a scary and a horrible person. It’ s almost making us think that Bush caused the war in the first place. Kerry calls Bush’s associated â€Å"hawks†, which are looked upon as dark cruel animals that don’t care about anything but their own well being. That connection makes Bush’s associates seem to be cruel and heartless people with no good cause. Throughout the speech ...

The Law Of Succession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Law Of Succession - Essay Example n behalf of the deceased. The intestacy rules, subject to reforms/amendments from time to time, being primarily governed by statues, are cited as a "will made by Parliament based upon the presumed wishes of the deceased." The present paper shall attempt to analyse the proposition to understand how rules of intestacy are indeed a "will made by the Parliament" and to examine whether, and to what extent the rules reflect the will of the deceased. In doing so, it shall first understand the provisions of intestate wealth distribution covered in statues and leading case laws and then examine the public opinion as well as reform proposals and other recommendations. The current law of intestacy in the U.K. is enacted in the Administration of Estates Act 1925 (AEA 1925) as amended, bounded by procedural legislations. Before analysing the provisions of AEA, 1925, a brief understanding of the evolution of intestacy rules may be worthwhile as a backdrop to the analysis. Before 1926, intestate succession to realty was governed by the rules of inheritance, accordingly realty passed to the heir-at-law, who was usually the eldest son. If there were no surviving sons, or their issue, realty devolved equally on the daughters of the intestate. The next entitled were the brothers and sisters of the intestate, or their issue; however, after the Inheritance Act 1833 the intestate's parents were given priority over brothers and sisters. If there were no next-of-kin, the realty passed to the intestate's lord or the Crown as 'bona vacantia.' The intestate's widow was strictly not entitled, but under the customary rules of dower, the widow became entitled to one-third of her husband's realty on his death. A widower took a life interest - defined as curtesy -- in the whole of his wife's realty. Similar rules applied to personalty, being distributed under the statutory scheme covered under the Statutes of Distribution 1670-1685.4 The AEA 1925 repealed the previous rules, both as regards succession to realty and personalty, giving primacy to the surviving spouse, and also ending the customary difference between widows and widowers as to entitlement. After 1925, the surviving spouse took the whole estate, the spouse being entitled to a statutory legacy of 1,000, the personal chattels of the intestate and a life interest in half the residue if there were issue. The Intestates' Estates Act 1952, which followed the "Morton report,"5 introduced major changes --the surviving spouse was also given the right to appropriate the matrimonial home and the statutory legacy was increased to 5,000. However, the 1952 Act also made Inheritance (Family Provision) Act 1938 applicable to intestacy, introducing flexibility by allowing certain family members of the

Managing Contract Risks Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managing Contract Risks - Assignment Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that contract is a legal agreement which binds parties with the intention of performing obligations in exchange for substantial consideration which is generally done formally in writing or by verbal agreements. It is either bilateral or unilateral. The mutual assent of parties, however, gives rise to obligations between parties involved and breaches thereof are remedied by law either by payment of damages, otherwise known as monetary compensation. As an economic activity, contracts also consider the sociological, anthropological and environmental terms of the agreement. Contract moreover is described as an offer accepted by another party based on the meeting of minds and some evidence showing their mutual assents to discourage ambiguities of terms. The consideration inherent in this agreement is of value in exchange for goods and services that will be rendered or delivered. Such consideration must be sufficient on its own. A contract can be i llustrated in purchase agreements where one party delivers a thing or good in exchange for payment. Other examples can be mirrored in specific performance of services in exchange for just compensation or payment. This is evident in a contract of employment or in case of constructing facilities as in the case of hiring engineers to perform the actual construction. Generally, contracts are made if parties have the legal capacity to make a contract; the purpose is legally warranted and forms are legal; parties have the intention to create legal relations, and mutual consent is adduced. Under the law, the contract can be vitiated when one of the parties of the contract made an irreparable mistake; is legally incapacitated; if contact is exacted out of duress and undue influence; if the contract is done in unconscionability and of misrepresentation; and, contract frustrate the purpose.

Currency Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Currency Management - Essay Example The foreign currency in the dollarization context serves as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value (Honohan, 2007). Dollarization operates and functions within the geographical boundaries of the specific country that adopts it. Different countries can engage in dollarization and use the same foreign currency, but their decisions are independent and unrelated. On the other hand, monetary union defines a scenario where two or more countries come together and agree to share a common currency. This means that all countries bound to the union uses the agreed upon currency to carry out economic transactions. Dollarization and monetary unions exhibit both advantages and disadvantages. For a small country, dollarization may be used to enhance the economic performance. However, the success of dollarization in the country that adopts the foreign currency may result in disregarded domestic currency by having the foreign currency replace it. In the context of the global financial system, the strongest and most used foreign currency may dominate and outperform other currencies through overvaluation. The policy is, however, vital in nurturing economic relationships across the globe. On the other hand, monetary union improves the value of the chosen currency, making the countries bound to the union influential in terms of domestic and international economic transactions (Gerber, 2010). However, countries with poor economic performance can be dominated and â€Å"enslaved† by stronger countries in the

Korean 180 C-problem set 14 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Korean 180 C-problem set 14 - Essay Example The people in the country are being used as tools for the leaders to achieve that political environment that they desire, but not one that will necessarily work. B) The myths in North Korean ideology are considered backward-looking because they are past events that have been brought into the present and given specific meaning. Many of these events are fabricated or exaggerated, which makes them different from the historical events, but acts as a tool of rallying the population for the country’s cause. For example, there are myths about how the country once operated as a Communist state where everyone only took what they needed. This myth is used in order to show the population what the ideal society would look like. This is an effective manner of manipulating the population into acting according to the government’s political ideologies. C) Ideology prevents North Korea from moving forward into a modern society because it is very difficult for outsiders to understand the political ideologies that are held in the country. Since it is difficult for outsiders to understand, it is also difficult for outsiders to understand how the populations could take these ideologies seriously, which means that the rest of the world sees North Koreans as being less sophisticated than people of other nationalities are. D) Even though the idea of Juche is based on national pride, North Korea has received help from other communist countries. While this is somewhat awkward, it is justified because Kim Il Sung argued that the most important thing is to strengthen the Communist movement worldwide because this would end up being in North Korea’s best interests. Kim said that internationalism and patriotism are interchangeable because they will both further the international Communist movement, which is something that would help North Korea in the long run. This was simply a manner of Kim getting the help he needed from other countries without losing the nationalist support in

College Survival Guide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

College Survival Guide - Essay Example If the question of research has few keywords, then I will be forced to broaden my search by using different keywords. All these does not mean that I will get good information, I then have to critically assess each source before downloading it to my machine or portable device (Carter, Bishop and Lyman, 2007). The library is the most important facility in the university. First, I have to master the road map to the library so that I don’t get lost and spent less time going to the library. After reaching the library, I have to search for information using the key word search method. But first, I need to type the key word and surround it with quotation marks; I may also use different words, each surrounded by a quotation mark. Whenever problems arise, I would not hesitate to ask the librarian to assist in solving my research problems Here, I will need to use computerized library catalogue or the results of my keyword search to find books and other materials on my topic. I also need to use the library catalogue. Each catalogue will tell me where exactly to find the information. Once I have gotten the article I need, the table of contents should be able to direct me to the specific pages where the information lies. There is need to be as original as possible while writing academic work. Direct copying of another person’s idea is not good. I need to be creative as possible and use other people’s ideas to help me achieve my goal. Whenever I use another person’s idea, i need to cite the source and the person who came up with the ideas. Plagiarism leads to academic dishonesty. The marks I get from plagiarized papers may deceive and lead to false pretense that I have made progress in education. In addition, plagiarism can lead to my work being cancelled hence not being awarded any marks when grades are being compiled. Finally, plagiarism leads to expulsion from the university and may lead to loss of

Managing Financial Risks Within Event Industry Essay

Managing Financial Risks Within Event Industry - Essay Example The methodology revolved around a survey of past and recent literature on financial risk management in the event industry. The study found out that cost-cutting measures and strategic investment are key strategies that feature in many of the risk management methods in literature. Introduction The element of risk in the event industry is one of the factors that continue to attract the concern of managers, financial analysts, and financial managers. The industry is one of the most challenging in the sense that it concerns itself with fluid and flexible systems that are dependent on uncertain realities in the field of investment (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). As such, the event industry has a higher element of risk when compared to the other industries. Many companies have suffered significant losses, drops in financial positions, and even permanent closures due to the unpredictable and risky aspects of the industry (Raj, & Musgrave, 2009). The element of risk arises due to multiple factors including hostile operating environments, rising costs of logistics, changing preferences of the clients, and adverse regulatory practices (Pelham, 2011). In order to shield themselves against the adverse effects of the global markets, many players in the industry have devised various financial management strategies that range from cost-cutting measures to enhancement of the efficiency of processes within the industry. Some of the financial management strategies have proved highly effective while others fail to produce significant results in terms of reducing the element of risk (O'Toole, 2002). However, the dominant methods of risk management are related to the need to develop both long term and short term strategies that can help revamp the state of the economy in ways that are both effective and strategic (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). The methods employed by the different companies often serve as the competitive advantage as they enable the companies to operate at h igher levels of profitability in ways that safeguard against negative effects on the business environment (Anderson, 2010). As such it becomes necessary to regard the operations of these companies within the manner in which they enable the determination of value and other systems of performance. Renowned companies in the event industry such as 3D Exhibits, Aspen, BroadStreet, Event Marketing Strategies, and EWI World Wide have managed to survive adverse market conditions through a range of strategies that enhance and strengthen their internal systems. In order to survive inflationary pressures and the effects of competition, some companies have changed their ways of operation by diversifying into various fields. Companies have added the range of services as a way of increasing the flow of revenues while reducing the overheads incurred in the running of the business processes (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). As such, it becomes important to consider the fact that most of the strate gies connected with the objective of lessening the element of risk are determined in accordance with the type of the event company. Other determinants are the level of competition, the nature of the market, and other external and internal factors that relate to the determination of performance within the industry (Robinson, Wale,

Korean 180 C-problem set 14 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Korean 180 C-problem set 14 - Essay Example The people in the country are being used as tools for the leaders to achieve that political environment that they desire, but not one that will necessarily work. B) The myths in North Korean ideology are considered backward-looking because they are past events that have been brought into the present and given specific meaning. Many of these events are fabricated or exaggerated, which makes them different from the historical events, but acts as a tool of rallying the population for the country’s cause. For example, there are myths about how the country once operated as a Communist state where everyone only took what they needed. This myth is used in order to show the population what the ideal society would look like. This is an effective manner of manipulating the population into acting according to the government’s political ideologies. C) Ideology prevents North Korea from moving forward into a modern society because it is very difficult for outsiders to understand the political ideologies that are held in the country. Since it is difficult for outsiders to understand, it is also difficult for outsiders to understand how the populations could take these ideologies seriously, which means that the rest of the world sees North Koreans as being less sophisticated than people of other nationalities are. D) Even though the idea of Juche is based on national pride, North Korea has received help from other communist countries. While this is somewhat awkward, it is justified because Kim Il Sung argued that the most important thing is to strengthen the Communist movement worldwide because this would end up being in North Korea’s best interests. Kim said that internationalism and patriotism are interchangeable because they will both further the international Communist movement, which is something that would help North Korea in the long run. This was simply a manner of Kim getting the help he needed from other countries without losing the nationalist support in

Managing Financial Risks Within Event Industry Essay

Managing Financial Risks Within Event Industry - Essay Example The methodology revolved around a survey of past and recent literature on financial risk management in the event industry. The study found out that cost-cutting measures and strategic investment are key strategies that feature in many of the risk management methods in literature. Introduction The element of risk in the event industry is one of the factors that continue to attract the concern of managers, financial analysts, and financial managers. The industry is one of the most challenging in the sense that it concerns itself with fluid and flexible systems that are dependent on uncertain realities in the field of investment (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). As such, the event industry has a higher element of risk when compared to the other industries. Many companies have suffered significant losses, drops in financial positions, and even permanent closures due to the unpredictable and risky aspects of the industry (Raj, & Musgrave, 2009). The element of risk arises due to multiple factors including hostile operating environments, rising costs of logistics, changing preferences of the clients, and adverse regulatory practices (Pelham, 2011). In order to shield themselves against the adverse effects of the global markets, many players in the industry have devised various financial management strategies that range from cost-cutting measures to enhancement of the efficiency of processes within the industry. Some of the financial management strategies have proved highly effective while others fail to produce significant results in terms of reducing the element of risk (O'Toole, 2002). However, the dominant methods of risk management are related to the need to develop both long term and short term strategies that can help revamp the state of the economy in ways that are both effective and strategic (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). The methods employed by the different companies often serve as the competitive advantage as they enable the companies to operate at h igher levels of profitability in ways that safeguard against negative effects on the business environment (Anderson, 2010). As such it becomes necessary to regard the operations of these companies within the manner in which they enable the determination of value and other systems of performance. Renowned companies in the event industry such as 3D Exhibits, Aspen, BroadStreet, Event Marketing Strategies, and EWI World Wide have managed to survive adverse market conditions through a range of strategies that enhance and strengthen their internal systems. In order to survive inflationary pressures and the effects of competition, some companies have changed their ways of operation by diversifying into various fields. Companies have added the range of services as a way of increasing the flow of revenues while reducing the overheads incurred in the running of the business processes (Robinson, Wale, & Dickson, 2010). As such, it becomes important to consider the fact that most of the strate gies connected with the objective of lessening the element of risk are determined in accordance with the type of the event company. Other determinants are the level of competition, the nature of the market, and other external and internal factors that relate to the determination of performance within the industry (Robinson, Wale,

Investigatory Project Physics Essay Example for Free

Investigatory Project Physics Essay The objective: The objective was to see which colored jars had the highest emissivity (or absorbed heat the fastest) which colors radiate heat the fastest by performing independent tests for heating cooling the colored jars. Methods/Materials Nine of the 10 small jars were painted on the outside with different colors of enamel paint. The 10th jar was used as the control variable. For the heating testing, the colored jars were divided into 3 groups. Group 1: red, blue, yellow; Group 2: gold, silver, black; Group 3: white, green, purple. Each jar started with 80 mL of 24 degree C tap water. The worklight had 2 high-powered lights of 500 watts each and 4 jars were tested at a time (each group was tested 1 at a time; one jar always being the control) for a total of 3 tests for 1 heating trial. There were 2 jars per light, both 20 cm from the light and 3 cm from each other. The 4 jars each had calibrated glass thermometers in them to monitor the water temps. A foil wall was put between the 2 lights to keep light heat from affecting the other lights jars. The temps were checked every 10 min. for a 100-min. period and recorded. For the cooling trial, 59 degree C water was poured into the 10 jars. The temps were checked and recorded the same way as the heating trial. Results The green jar heated the fastest with its temp rising to 63 degrees C at the end of the period. Blue followed with 59 degrees C. Black was near average, with 52 degrees C. Gold stayed coolest with 41 degrees C. All colors cooled at almost the same rate but Black always had the coolest temp compared to the other jars. Conclusions/Discussion The hypothesis was incorrect in the heating trial, but was supported in the cooling trial. During research a picture of the visible spectrum was found, showing blue and green with the thickest bonds. Maybe thats why the blue and green jars heated the fastest appeared to have the highest emissivity. The black jar cooled the quickest maybe because its color had the jar absorb the heat from the water. Green appeared to have the highest emissivity. It may be linked to why chlorophyll is green. If the colored jars were placed under a light source, the darkest color of the set would heat the fastest (or have the highest emissivity); if all colored jars were cooled from the same temperature, the darkest would cool the fastest.

Wireless Local Loop

Wireless Local Loop Wireless Local Loop Abstract-A local loop connects a subscriber to the service providers switch, this connection is usually a wire; typically copper wire. Advanced studies on the capabilities of copper wire as a transmission medium has made it possible to use the local loop to offer services other than the basic voice service. This technology known as digital subscriber line technology (DSL) utilizes the existing copper wires to provide high speed data services. Optical fibre is a better option particularly for its large bandwidth but cost restricts its use as a local loop. Wireless local loop eliminates the need for wires as the subscribers equipment is wirelessly connected to the providers network. Wireless local loop (WLL) is a popular alternative as it has been deployed in both developed and developing nations because of its advantages. With an ever increasing demand to access the internet, the wireless local loop has evolved seeking to meet such demand. This paper looks at the several wireless local loop technologies as well as its prospects and future as a medium for broadband wireless services. Keywords: Wireless Local Loop, Internet, Broadband INTRODUCTION The local loop refers to the circuit terminating at the subscribers premises connecting the subscriber equipment to the switch of the telecommunications provider. It is the last lap of the providers infrastructure over which services are delivered to the user, hence, the term â€Å"last mile† is also used to refer to the local loop. Copper wires have been the principal candidate for the local loop providing voice service for telephony. However, digital subscriber line technology (DSL) makes it possible to use existing copper wires to offer services other than voice such as data, video, and multimedia services. One form of digital subscriber line technology (DSL), asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is the most commonly used today. Optical fibre has a lot of advantages over copper wire and that makes it an excellent choice for local loop but its cost is prohibitive. Wireless local loop also known as radio local loop uses radio signals to complete the last lap to the users premises. Wireless local loop is particularly suited to remote locations providing access to providers infrastructure and in areas where the terrain makes it impossible to lay cables. Wireless local loop offers a number of advantages over its wireline counterpart. 1) Fast deployment 2) Low installation cost 3) Low maintenance cost 4) High system capacity There are several wireless local loop (WLL) technologies available, hence, the technology deployed for a particular area will depend on the population density and service needs of the users. The rest of the paper is organized as follows, in section II, the wireless local loop architecture is considered. Section III presents the wireless local loop technologies followed by the wireless local loop for broadband services in section IV. Section V concludes the paper. WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE The wireless local loop architecture is shown in figure 1. The fixed subscriber unit (FSU) is an interface between subscribers wired devices and wireless local loop network. The wired devices can be computers as well as telephones. The fixed subscriber performs channel coding and decoding, modulation and demodulation, and transmission/reception of signal via radio. The base transceiver system (BTS) performs channel coding/decoding, modulation and demodulation as well as transmission and reception of signal via radio. The base transceiver system is also referred to as the radio port (RP). A base station controller (BSC) controls one or more base transceiver systems (BTSs) and provides an interface to the local exchange (switch) in the central office [22]. WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP TECHNOLOGIES A. Microcellular based systems These systems provide low delay, low power and high quality services in a small coverage area. Compared with the cellular based wireless local loop, more base stations are required to cover the same service area. They are typically operated at 800MHz, 1.5GHz, 1.8GHz, and 1.9GHz frequency bands [77]. 1) Personal access communication system (PACS) Personal access communication system (PACS) is a low power radio system for both personal communication system applications and for fixed wireless loop applications. Personal access communication system is optimized to provide basic capabilities to support wireless local loop and additional capabilities to support mobility. The service capabilities of personal access communication system include voice, fax, voiceband data, and wireless digital data. The basic personal access communication handset can handle user with vehicle speeds up to about 50km/hr []. The personal access communication system architecture is shown in figure 2. The radio port (RP) function as radio frequency (RF) modems. Personal access communication system (PACS) uses time division multiple access (TDMA) on the uplink and time division multiplexing (TDM) on the downlink. The personal access communication system protocol supports switching to alternate channels when one radio port (RP) is busy [36]. 2) Personal handyphone system (PHS) Personal handyphone system is a low range personal communications services (PCS) technology that was developed in Japan to support very high density pedestrian traffic and wireless local loop. It is built on a foundation of digital cordless technology and microcell architecture [26]. Personal handyphone system (PHS) personal stations consist of handheld units that can operate as simple cordless phones, as transceivers for communications with other personal stations, or as mobile terminals to access the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The mode of operation must be selected by the user [26]. 3) Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT) Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT) is a radio interface standard developed in Europe mainly for indoor wireless applications [26]. Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications is a flexible digital radio access standard for cordless communications in residential, corporate, and public environment. In Europe, digital enhanced cordless telecommunications utilizes the 1880-1900 MHz frequency range. The DECT radio interface is based on the Multicarrier/Time division multiple access/Time division duplex (MC/TDMA/TDD) radio access methodology. Basic DECT frequency (1800-1900 MHz) is allocated to 10carrier frequencies, and the time is organized in frames. Each frame lasts for 10ms and consists of 24 timeslots separated into two fixed parts [37]. The fixed part (FP) consists of three entities; radio fixed port, central system, interworking unit. The radio fixed port terminates the air interface protocol. The central system provides a cluster controller functionality managing a number of radio fixed ports. The interworking unit provides all the necessary function for the DECT radio system to interwork with the attached wireline network; which can be: the public switched telephone network (PSTN), and the packet switched public data network [36]. B. Cellular based systems These systems are characterised by large power, high mobility and relatively low data rate over a large area. Cellular wireless local loop technologies are primarily used to expand the basic telephony services. Typically, they operate in the mobile frequency bands at 800-900 MHz, 1.8-1.9 GHz, and sometimes at 450 MHz or 1.5 GHz. For relatively sparsely populated rural and even urban settings, wireless local loop technologies based on existing cellular systems can be economical and rapidly deployed [77]. 1) Time division multiple access (IS-136/GSM) Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a multiple access technique which divides a channel into a number of timeslots. For TDMA system, there are two prevalent standards: North American telecommunications/electronics industry association (TIA/EIA) IS-136 and European telecommunications standards institute (ETSI) global system for mobile telecommunications (GSM). The IS-136 standard uses Ï€/4-Quadrature phase shift keying (Ï€/4-QPSK) modulation scheme while the GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK) modulation. Also the channel bandwidth of the two systems is different (30 kHz for IS-136 and 200 KHz for GSM). GSM has a frame length of 4.615 ms instead of 40 ms for IS-136 [26]. Although GSM currently dominates mobile digital cellular and provides high quality voice, there has been little activity in using GSM as a wireless local loop platform. Being designed to handle international roaming, it carries a large amount of overhead that makes it unwieldly and costly for wireless local loop applications [36]. 2) Code division multiple access (IS-95/W-CDMA) Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a multiple access technique that employs spread spectrum technique. CDMA (IS-95) is a direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) system where the entire bandwidth of the system 1.25 MHz is made available to the user. The bandwidth is many times larger than the bandwidth required for transmitting information [26]. IS-95A standard has been TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP SERVICES developed for a digital cellular system with direct sequence (DS) CDMA technology, operating at 800MHz band. IS-95 based CDMA wireless local loop can support two rate sets. A code channel (traffic channel) operates at a maximum of 9.6 kbps with the rate set 1 or 14.4 kbps with rate set 2. IS-95B offers high speed data services through code aggregation. In IS-95B systems, multiple codes (up to eight codes) may be assigned to a connection [22]. In CDMA systems pseudo-noise (PN) sequences are used for the different user signals with the same transmission bandwidth [26]. Wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) in comparison with narrowband CDMA systems (IS-95) use higher chip rate for direct sequence spread spectrum and, thus, spread its information into wider spectrum bandwidth (typically, equal to or over 5 MHz). Thus, data rate per code channel in W-CDMA can be higher than that in narrowband system. The wireless local loop standard defines several options for voice codecs: 64 kbps PCM, 32 kbps ADPCM, 16 kbps LD-CELP, and 8 kbps conjugate structure algebraic-code-excited linear prediction (CS-ACELP) [22]. CDMA based systems offer higher capacity and flexibility compared to other digital standards [36]. C. Satellite based systems These systems provide telephony services for rural communities and isolated areas such as islands [26]. These systems can be either of technology designed specifically for wireless local loop applications or of technology piggybacked onto mobile satellite systems as an adjunct service. Satellite technology has been used to provide telephony to remote areas of the world for many years. Such systems provide an alternative to terrestrial telephony systems where landlines are not cost effective or where an emergency backup is required [77]. A user can access the public switched telephone network (PSTN) via satellite indirectly from a wireless local loop facility through a small satellite terminal and a geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellite. A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) terminal usually includes a 0.6-2.4 m dish antenna and a transceiver radio (outdoor unit) as well as a set of baseband and intermediate frequency (IF) subsystems (indoor units). In hybrid architectures, the VS AT is connected to a wireless local loop base station through the local switching exchange [24]. D. Proprietary systems These systems are considered proprietary because they are not available on the public wireless networks and are typically customized for a specific application. They generally do not provide mobility. Proprietary systems are, therefore, positioned to provide basic fixed wireless telephony. WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP FOR BROADBAND SERVICES For services requiring large bandwidths, such as video on demand, broadband wireless systems are suitable because of their higher frequency ranges. A. Local multipoint distribution systems (LMDS) Local multipoint distribution systems (LMDS) is a radio based access technology with cellular architecture offering flexible high capacity connections to private users and organizations [8]. Depending on the particular spectrum allocation policy, operation of LMDS systems take place at millimetre waves (typically 28 GHz in the United States and 40 GHz in Europe), enabling the exploitation of more than 1GHz operational bandwidth. This allows a plethora of multimedia services at data rates of hundreds of megabits per second [2]. Interactive LMDS has a point to multipoint downlink and a point to point uplink. The capacity of the return channel is determined by the needs of the individual user [8]. B. Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX) Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX) is a wireless communication technology capable of providing very high data rates over a large area. According to standards, WiMAX can support up to a 75 Mb/s data rate (single channel) and cover up to 30 miles [6]. The technology can provide fast and cheap broadband access to areas that lack infrastructure such as rural areas [4]. WiMAX technology supports two network modes: point to point (PMP) and mesh. A PMP network is designed primarily to provide for providing last mile access to the service provider, it consists of a base station (BS) and subscriber stations (SSs) and both uplink and downlink channels are shared among the subscriber stations. PMP mode requires all subscriber stations to be within the transmission range and clear line of sight (LOS) of the base station. The mesh network, on the other hand, is a multihop ad hoc network in which all nodes act as relaying routers in addition to their sender and receiver roles [1]. CONCLUSION The advantages of wireless local loop over the wired loop especially in the areas of fast deployment and installation cost continue to make it an attractive option for rural areas and difficult terrains. As with most wireless communication systems, the quality versus coverage area compromise remains an issue. However, the emergence of broadband wireless systems promises quality service over a considerable area, though, cost is a limiting factor. The wireless local loop market is expected to continue to grow in developed countries to compete with wired loop providers and in developing countries to connect many that are without service. REFERENCES [1] D.G. Jeong, and W.S. 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